Jawaharlal Nehru era
Planning commission
Jawaharlal Nehru era 1950-1964: As Prime minister of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru took up two important tasks. One is to feed Indian people, and to compensate the loss of food producing Punjab area to Pakistan. To strengthen India’s industrial capabilities and achieve self-reliance, a policy of Import Substitution Industrial Development was adopted. The Government established heavy industries with technological assistance from foreign nations and companies. Nehru successfully acquired technology from both Communist and Capitalist spheres. He implemented the Soviet model of planned development. In fact, the National Planning Committee was formed and led by Jawaharlal Nehru in 1938, followed by the establishment of the first Planning Commission in 1950. (Please read other parts of this article at: Jawaharlal Nehru 1889-1940, Jawaharlal Nehru 1940-1950.)
Here I will try to list out some of his works for which India is proud of now.
Irrigation, Hydel projects
A variety of multipurpose irrigation initiatives were prioritized to ensure India’s self-sufficiency in food grain production. Technically, these initiatives are referred to as HYDEL projects. These Hydro Electric projects not only facilitate the irrigation of agricultural fields but also generate electric power. (His vision ultimately materialized by the late 1970s.) However, the groundwork was laid by Nehru, who established the Bhakra Nangal Dam (in 1948), the Hirakud project (in 1948), the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (in 1955), and the Sardar Sarovar Dam (in 1961), which collectively irrigate millions of hectares of farmland throughout India. Additionally, these projects produce millions of units of electric power at a minimal cost.
Heavy Industries and Manufacturing
In the industrial sector, the Bhilai Steel Plant, established with assistance from the USSR, and the Rourkela Steel Plant, developed with German support, were both founded in 1955 and became operational in 1959. The Durgapur Steel Plant was also established in 1955 in West Bengal. Hindustan Steel Private Limited was incorporated on January 19, 1954. By the end of December 1961, both the Bhilai and Rourkela Steel Plants were fully operational.
The Integral Coach Factory (ICF) was founded in 1952 in Chennai for the production of rail coaches and is managed by the Indian Railways.
The Chittaranjan Locomotive Factory was established in 1950.
The Diesel Locomotive Works was founded in 1961 in Varanasi, and it produced its first locomotive three years later, on January 3, 1964.
In 1956, BEL (Bharat Electronics Limited) commenced its journey by manufacturing a limited range of communication equipment. By 1961, the company expanded its production to include receiving valves, followed by germanium semiconductors in 1962, and radio transmitters for AIR in 1964.
The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was founded in 1962 during the administration of Jawaharlal Nehru, operating under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and led by the eminent scientist Vikram Sarabhai, in response to the growing need for advancements in space research. INCOSPAR evolved into ISRO in 1969. Subsequently, ISRO developed India’s inaugural satellite, Aryabhata, which was successfully launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975.
Nehru foresaw the advancement of nuclear weaponry and founded the Department of Scientific Research on August 10, 1948. He also summoned Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, a prominent nuclear physicist, and granted him full control over all nuclear-related matters and programs, making him accountable solely to Nehru. The framework of Indian nuclear policy was established through an informal personal agreement between Nehru and Bhabha. Nehru is famously quoted as saying to Bhabha, “Professor Bhabha, focus on Physics, and I will handle international relations.”
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Nehru conveyed to Bhabha, as recounted by Bhabha to Raja Rammanna, that: “We must possess the (nuclear) capability. We should first establish our credibility and then discuss Gandhi, non-violence, and a world devoid of nuclear arms.”
This type of leadership is referred to as statesmanship. Therefore, it is essential to recognize that Nehru was not merely a politician but a statesman and a visionary. He had the courage to pursue what he believed to be right, undeterred by fear. Nehru remained steadfast in his principles and adhered to his convictions, regardless of the potential repercussions, much like Gandhi. This may explain why Gandhi regarded Nehru as his de facto successor.
The Atomic Energy Commission serves as the regulatory authority for the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) within the Government of India. The DAE operates directly under the supervision of the Prime Minister.
On 1 March 1958, a resolution enacted by the Government of India transformed the commission into the “Atomic Energy Commission of India,” thereby establishing the Department of Atomic Energy with enhanced financial and executive authority.
The Government of India established the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) on January 3, 1954.
Additionally, the ‘Rare Minerals Survey Unit’ commenced operations in New Delhi on August 10, 1948. It was initially renamed as the ‘Raw Materials Division’ and subsequently as the ‘Atomic Minerals Division’ in 1958, before being relocated to Hyderabad in 1974.
The Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO) was formed in 1958 through the merger of the Defense Science Organization and several other technical development entities.
In the 1960s, DRDO initiated its first significant project in surface-to-air missiles (SAM), known as Project Indigo.
During Jawaharlal Nehru’s administration, the Hindustan Machine Tools factory, Sindri Fertilizer factory, and Indian Telephone Industry were established.
The Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) was founded in 1956, followed by the establishment of the Indian Oil Corporation in 1959.
The Life Insurance Corporation of India was established in 1956 following the passage of the Life Insurance of India Act by the Parliament of India, which nationalized the insurance sector in the country. Consequently, more than 245 insurance companies and provident societies were consolidated to form the state-owned Life Insurance Corporation of India.
The Unit Trust of India (UTI) was created in 1963 through an Act of Parliament, serving as the primary financial institution aimed at offering credit and various facilities to foster the development of industries and institutions.
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To prepare India for advancements in technology,
Five Indian Institutes of Technology were founded between 1951 and 1961 in Delhi, Khargpur, Madras, Kanpur, and Bombay. (Currently, there are 23 IITs in India). Additionally, 13 Regional Engineering Colleges were established from 1961 to 1964, which are now referred to as National Institutes of Technology.
Nehru accomplished this progress by adhering to the principle of planned development, along with his clear vision and unwavering commitment to national welfare and advancement. He implemented the Soviet model of Five Year Plans to ensure balanced development across India.
Five Year Plans
The First Five-Year Plan, which had a budget of Rs. 23,777 million, focused on the advancement of agriculture, irrigation, and electric power generation. The responsibility for industrial development was primarily assigned to private entrepreneurs. Nevertheless, a modest start was made in establishing essential industries such as iron and steel, heavy electrical, and chemical sectors.
Throughout the duration of the First Five-Year Plan, irrigation facilities were expanded to cover an additional 6 million acres, while minor irrigation projects benefited 10 million acres.
Between 1951 and 1955, the Gross National Income experienced an increase of 18%, rising from Rs. 91,100 million to Rs. 108,000 million.
Industrial production saw a growth of 39%.
II Five year PLAN
The Second Five-Year Plan focused on enhancing national income, improving living standards, and creating employment opportunities. Emphasis was placed on industrialization, particularly in basic and heavy industries. The public sector received an allocation of Rs. 48,000 million, while the private sector was allotted Rs. 24,000 million. Consequently, national income rose by 34%, reaching Rs. 1,45,000 million by 1960. Additionally, food grain production saw an increase of 46%.
III Five year PLAN
The Third Five-Year Plan failed to meet its objectives due to the wars and drought conditions that affected the nation. Under this plan, the public sector was allocated Rs. 75,000 million, while the private sector received Rs. 41,000 million. The plan aimed for a 5% annual increase in national income, self-sufficiency in food grain production, and the establishment of industries.
As a result of planned development, by 1971, 380 irrigation projects were completed, which expanded irrigated land from 0.90 million hectares in 1951 to 11.50 million hectares in 1971. The number of tractors used in agriculture rose from 9,000 in 1951 to 31,000 by 1961. Food grain production increased from 55 million tonnes to 82 million tonnes by the 1960-61 period. Additionally, food grain output per hectare improved from 522 kg in 1951 to 858 kg by 1971. Fertilizer consumption also saw a significant rise, increasing from 55,000 tonnes in 1951 to 306,000 tonnes in 1961.
The production of steel ingots rose from 1.40 million tonnes in 1950 to 3.42 million tonnes by 1962. Similarly, sugar production grew from 1.12 million tonnes to 3.02 million tonnes. Cement production increased from 2.70 million tonnes to 7.97 million tonnes, while aluminum output expanded from 3,700 tonnes to 18,300 tonnes. Additionally, bicycle production surged from 90,000 units in 1951 to 1,071,000 units by 1962.
The literacy rate improved from 18% in 1951 to 28% by 1961. However, the population growth was significant, reaching 430 million by 1965. Furthermore, India faced the challenge of rehabilitating approximately 8.50 million individuals who migrated to the country during the partition.
Due to the boost in manufacturing production, the export volume rose from an annual rate of 2.9 percent during 1951–1960 to 7.6 percent in 1971–1980. In fact, 1,500 villages were electrified by 1947, and this figure grew to 10,000 by 1955. The generation of electric power escalated from 2.30 million units in 1951 to 3.20 million units by 1955, reaching 5.70 million units by 1960.
In the realm of foreign affairs, Nehru positioned India as an alternative power center in contrast to the US and USSR blocs. He advocated for the principle of the Non-Aligned Movement by collaborating with Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia, Nasser of Egypt, and Sukarno of Indonesia.
In 1959, India, under the leadership of Nehru, provided asylum to the Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader and head of the Tibetan State. This action led to China’s invasion of India in 1962; however, China eventually withdrew, retaining control over a portion of the Aksai Chin region. Despite this, Nehru remained steadfast and did not surrender the Dalai Lama to China.
Additionally, in 1961, Nehru authorized the Indian Army to launch an invasion of Goa, which was under Portuguese control, successfully integrating it into the Indian Union.
Furthermore, India, guided by Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru, played a significant role in addressing the Korean crisis and the Suez Canal crisis.
Sukarno, the Prime Minister of Indonesia, lauded Nehru as the “Light of Asia”; however, this term was originally used to describe Lord Buddha. Indians hold Nehru in high esteem as the Architect of Modern India. I refer to him as Nehru the Great.
Certain individuals and organizations attempt to speak negatively about Nehru, portraying him as a failure and incompetent. Yet, as demonstrated above, Nehru successfully established a democratic polity in India, worked tirelessly for the nation’s development, and positioned India among the prominent nations of the world.
It is important to highlight that the process of forgetting Nehru and distancing from his legacy commenced with the era of the Late Rajiv Gandhi. I recall that Nehru’s image has not been featured in Congress hoardings since 1986. Even now, the Congress party rarely responds to criticisms of Nehru from others.
In recent years, Nehru has been subjected to denigration and vilification with a specific intent. By attempting to undermine Nehru, there seems to be an effort to dismantle Democracy and Republicanism. It is quite remarkable to observe that even non-rightist intellectuals tend to avoid mentioning Nehru’s name when discussing various issues.
Nehru absorbed the principles of democratic and republican governance during his time in London, as well as through his studies of the American and French revolutions. He was also influenced by the Russian revolution; however, he did not adopt the principle of armed revolt that was evident there. Instead, he embraced Gandhi’s ideals of non-violence and Satyagraha, remaining steadfast in these beliefs until his objectives were achieved. Ultimately, he successfully established democratic institutions in India by implementing a written Constitution, adhering to his principles until the very end.
He lived and died as a Republican. When the Congress party appointed his daughter, Indira Gandhi, as President of the Congress party, Nehru reprimanded those responsible for that decision. He did not grant her a position in the Cabinet and dismissed the proposal. In his final days, when asked to designate his successor for the Prime Minister’s office, he replied, “I have established democratic institutions. The Constitution will handle that issue.” Thus, Nehru remained true to his principles, much like Gandhi, and never wavered from his ideals.
In this context, we must clarify the truth regarding Indira’s marital issues. Indira expressed her desire to marry Mr. Firoz Khan. Many individuals mistakenly believe he was a Muslim due to his surname containing ‘Khan.’ However, he was actually a Parsi. Nehru opposed the proposal on the grounds of Firoz’s Parsi heritage. Subsequently, Gandhi intervened and proposed that he would adopt Firoz, and after performing the necessary rituals, Firoz Khan was converted to Hinduism. Following this, Nehru consented to Indira’s marriage to Firoz Khan Gandhi. This incident elucidates that Nehru, Indira, and Firoz were all Hindus.
Kashmir problem
Nehru is often criticized by his political adversaries regarding the Kashmir issue. It is essential to clarify the misconceptions surrounding Nehru’s role in the Kashmir crisis. The Kingdom of Maharaja Harisingh included the Kashmir valley, Jammu, the Aksai Chin region, Ladakh, Gilgit, and Baltistan. At that time, the Gilgit and Baltistan regions were under a lease agreement with the British. The Maharaja terminated this lease prior to his accession to India. Rather than vacating the area, the British transferred Gilgit Baltistan to Pakistan, despite having no legitimate authority to do so. Furthermore, in 1952, China occupied the Aksai Chin region, catching India off guard. Additionally, certain territories now referred to as Azad Kashmir are under Pakistani control, disguised as tribal raids. Consequently, only 60% of the original land area of the former Kashmiri Kingdom is currently part of India.
Gilgit Baltistan accounts for 25% of the land area of the former Kashmir Kingdom. Meanwhile, the region referred to as Azad Kashmir constitutes 15% of the historical Kashmiri kingdom.
Currently, 90% of the population in the Kashmir Valley is comprised of Muslim communities. In Jammu, Muslims make up 30% of the population. In Ladakh, 46% of the inhabitants are Muslims, primarily from the Shia sect, while 50% of the Ladakhi population practices Buddhism. In total, 70% of the population of the former Kashmir Kingdom now resides on the Indian side, which includes Kashmir, Jammu, and Leh.
It is noteworthy that Pakistan does not officially recognize Gilgit Baltistan and Azad Kashmir as its provinces. Instead, it governs these regions through military control. This situation arises from the fact that it is unlawful for Pakistan to incorporate these territories, as the Maharaja of Kashmir did not consent to their accession to Pakistan.
Now, let us explore the events that transpired in Kashmir during the Maharaja’s accession to India.
Indeed, Maharaja Hari Singh chose to remain independent, believing that the Muslim population of the State would be dissatisfied if he aligned with India, while the Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Shias of Kargil would be at risk if he opted for Pakistan. Therefore, he aimed to maintain his position as the Sovereign King of Kashmir.
During this period, agents from the Muslim League of Pakistan operated secretly in Poonch, inciting local Muslims to initiate an armed uprising by taking advantage of existing economic discontent. The authorities in Pakistani Punjab conducted a ‘private war’ by hindering the supply of fuel and essential goods to the State.
Communal riots erupted in the Jammu division of the state amidst the chaos of Partition, as migrants from the Rawalpindi and Sialkot regions entered Jammu bearing reports of atrocities committed against Hindus. In response, the Hindu community in Jammu instigated riots against Muslims. The RSS was actively involved in the area.
Subsequently, Muslims from Western Kashmir organized into a rebel faction led by Ibrahim of the Muslim Conference and proclaimed Azad Kashmir in October 1946.
In 1946, the National Conference initiated the ‘Quit Kashmir’ movement, urging the Maharaja to transfer authority to the people of Kashmir. The Muslim Conference opposed the National Conference’s efforts. By 22 July 1947, the Muslim Conference began advocating for the state’s accession to Pakistan.
Both Abdullah and Abbas were incarcerated by the Maharaja.
Tensions were escalating in Jammu as well. Prem Nath Dogra united the Dogra Hindus of Jammu under the banner of the All Jammu and Kashmir Rajya Hindu Sabha. He also served as the chairman (sanghchalak) of the RSS in Jammu. In 1942, Balraj Madhok came to the state as a pracharak of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). He set up branches of the RSS in Jammu and subsequently in the Kashmir Valley. In May 1947, in light of the Partition plan, the Hindu Sabha endorsed the Maharaja’s decision to maintain independence. In November 1947, shortly after the state’s accession to India, Hindu leaders initiated the Jammu Praja Parishad with the aim of achieving the “full integration” of Jammu and Kashmir with India, labeling Sheikh Abdullah’s government as communist. Thus, there was a lack of consistency in the positions adopted by these Hindu parties.
On 19 September, the Maharaja communicated with Nehru and Patel in Delhi, requesting vital supplies for Kashmir due to Pakistan’s blockade of transport routes, while also indicating his readiness to accede to India. However, Nehru insisted on the release of Sheikh Abdullah from prison and the establishment of democratic institutions in Kashmir before he would permit the state’s accession. Consequently, Sheikh Abdullah was released from jail by the Maharaja on 29 September. Meanwhile, Pakistan advanced its soldiers under the pretext of tribal raids towards Shrinagar. Subsequently, the Maharaja of Kashmir sent an urgent plea to India for military support.
It is important to highlight that during that period, Pakistan, India, and Kashmir were recognized as three sovereign nations. Consequently, neither India nor Pakistan is permitted to deploy military forces in Kashmir. This is why Pakistan refers to the deployment of its troops as Tribal incursions. Additionally, the Maharaja of Kashmir had already entered into a standstill agreement with Pakistan to avert any preemptive measures from their side. Therefore, Nehru emphasized the necessity of the Maharaja signing the Instrument of Accession before India could dispatch its troops to Kashmir.
On 26 October 1947, the Maharaja signed the instrument of accession, thereby integrating Kashmir into India, which rendered Pakistan’s presence in the region illegal.
It is noteworthy that the RSS initially advocated for an independent Kashmir under the Dogra rule. However, it later shifted its stance to demand complete integration of Kashmir with India. The Rajah aimed to maintain independence but ultimately consented to the accession with India. Meanwhile, Sheikh Abdullah sought an independent Kashmir, albeit without the Maharaja’s influence, but eventually agreed to the accession with India. Throughout this period, all parties exhibited indecision and lacked a consistent vision for Kashmir’s future.
However, Nehru consistently upheld his belief that the people of Kashmir should support the accession of Kashmir by the Maharaja. Ultimately, the Kashmiri Constituent Assembly confirmed the Maharaja’s accession in 1956. The Constitution of Kashmir declares that Kashmir (Jammu & Kashmir) is an inseparable part of India and that the accession to India is final.
Nevertheless, Sheikh Abdullah was not involved in this resolution, as he was imprisoned at that time.
Indeed, Sheikh Abdullah was sworn in as the Prime Minister of the state on 17 March 1948. Karan Singh, the son of Maharajah Hari Singh, was appointed as the Sadr-i-Riyasat (Constitutional Head of State) and the Governor of the state. Subsequently, in October 1951, the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference established the Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir to draft the state’s Constitution.
In 1949, Sheikh Abdulla’s Government enacted the ‘Landed Estates Abolition Act,’ which allowed the Government to seize land from landlords without providing compensation. At that time, similar legislation was enacted by governments across various Indian provinces. The Jammu Praja Parishad protested against Sheikh’s land reforms, contending that the Act violated the fundamental rights enshrined in the Indian Constitution, particularly the Right to Property. Notably, the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, which governed India from 1977 to 1980, collaborated with Communists to remove the clause related to the Fundamental Right to Property for the entire country. The Praja Parishad advocated for full integration with India, believing that such integration would render Sheikh’s land reforms invalid, as numerous land reform bills passed by different provinces were being stalled by the courts in India. However, in 1952, Nehru issued the First Government Order that abolished Zamindaris.
On January 15, 1952, students organized a protest against the raising of the state flag alongside the Indian Union flag in Jammu.
To resolve the constitutional impasse, Nehru extended an invitation to the National Conference to send a delegation to Delhi. The ‘1952 Delhi Agreement’ was established to clarify the applicability of the Indian Constitution to Jammu and Kashmir and to define the relationship between the State and the Centre. This agreement was reached between Nehru and Abdullah on July 24, 1952. Subsequently, the Constituent Assembly abolished the monarchy in Kashmir and adopted an elected Head of State (Sadr-i Riyasat). However, the Assembly under Abdullah showed reluctance to implement the remaining provisions agreed upon in the Delhi Agreement.
Sheikh Abdullah began to distance himself from his earlier pledge to support the Maharaja’s accession to India and started advocating for the self-determination of the Kashmiri people. Subsequently, Nehru had Sheikh arrested and appointed Bakshi Mohammad in his place.
In November 1952, the Praja Parishad initiated a civil disobedience campaign for the third time, which once again resulted in repression by the state government. The Parishad accused Abdullah of promoting communalism, favoring Muslim interests in the state while neglecting the interests of others. The Jana Sangh allied with the Hindu Mahasabha and Ram Rajya Parishad to initiate a parallel agitation in Delhi. In May 1953, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, the founder of Bharatiya Jana Sangh, acting on the advice of Golwalkar, attempted to enter Jammu and Kashmir without obtaining a permit from the State Government, asserting his rights as an Indian citizen to travel anywhere in the country. Abdullah barred his entry and subsequently arrested him. Tragically, Mukherjee passed away in detention on 23 June 1953 due to health complications. He had reportedly suffered from dry pleurisy prior to 1945, and it is believed that this condition reemerged in the cold climate of Kashmir. After experiencing a heart attack, he was transferred to Shrinagar Hospital, where he died the following day. I do not perceive any conspiracy surrounding this incident.
Bakshi Mohammad, who assumed the role of Prime Minister of Kashmir, executed all the provisions outlined in the ‘1952 Delhi Agreement’. In May 1954, the Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954, was promulgated by the President of India under Article 370, with the agreement of the Government of the State of Jammu and Kashmir. This order introduced Article 35A to the Constitution of India, granting the Jammu and Kashmir state legislature the authority to define “permanent residents” of the state and to confer special rights and privileges upon these permanent residents. (Similar provisions, such as Articles 371, A to E, were also enacted and remain in effect within the Indian Constitution to protect the interests of local populations in various states to this day. Certain regions in Gujarat are also governed by these provisions. It is important to note that laws aimed at safeguarding the rights of local residents were established in the 1920s across several kingdoms, including Kashmir and Hyderabad.)
On 15 February 1954, the Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir ratified the state’s accession to India, declaring that this accession was irrevocable and that Kashmir is an inalienable part of India. Subsequently, on 17 November 1956, the Assembly adopted the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir, which came into full effect on 26 January 1957.
However, on 24 January 1957, the United Nations passed a resolution indicating that the decisions made by the Constituent Assembly would not represent a final resolution of the State, which must be determined through a free and impartial plebiscite. Nehru opposed such gestures from the UN, asserting that the organization was taking a biased position and therefore its resolutions were not binding on India.
Following the imprisonment of Sheikh Abdullah, his associate Mirza Afzal Beg established the Plebiscite Front on 9 August 1955 to advocate for the plebiscite demand and the unconditional release of Sheikh Abdullah. The actions of the Plebiscite Front ultimately resulted in the notorious Kashmir Conspiracy Case in 1958, along with two additional cases. On 8 August 1958, Abdullah was re-arrested on charges related to these cases.
In the wake of widespread unrest caused by the disappearance of a holy relic from the Hazratbal Shrine on 27 December 1963, the State Government decided to drop all charges in the Kashmir Conspiracy Case as a diplomatic measure on 8 April 1964. Sheikh Abdullah was subsequently released and made his way back to Srinagar.
On 21 November 1964, Articles 356 and 357 of the Indian Constitution were applied to the state, enabling the Central Government to take over the administration of the State and exercise its legislative authority.
On 24 November 1964, the Jammu and Kashmir Assembly was compelled to enact a constitutional amendment that transformed the elected position of Sadr-i-Riyasat into a centrally-appointed role of “Governor” and changed the title of “Prime Minister” to “Chief Minister.” This is considered the “end of the road” for Article 370 and the constitutional autonomy it provided.
On 3 January 1965, ahead of the 1967 Assembly elections, the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference disbanded and integrated into the Indian National Congress, reflecting a significant centralizing approach.
In January 1951, Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies proposed the establishment of a Commonwealth force in Kashmir. The United States and Britain suggested that if Pakistan and India could not come to an agreement, arbitration would be an option. Pakistan consented, but Nehru stated that he would not permit a third party to determine the fate of the four million residents of Jammu and Kashmir. Consequently, India dismissed the UN-appointed plebiscite administrator Nimitz, citing a perceived pro-Pakistan bias from the United States.
In February 1954, the United States announced its intention to provide military assistance to Pakistan. A military pact was signed in May, which ensured that Pakistan would receive military equipment and training. (Currently, the USA maintains several military bases in Pakistan.) To address India’s concerns, the US President attempted to offer similar military resources to India. However, India declined the proposal. As a result, Nehru rejected any UN or US-mediated plebiscite and asserted that maintaining the status quo was the only viable option.
From the previous discussions, we have gained insights into the Kashmir issue concerning India. We have recognized that Nehru was a Democrat, Constitutionalist, and Republican. He made every effort to ensure that democracy thrived in Kashmir. He did not permit the replacement of Maharaja with another ruler, Sheikh Abdullah, and he rejected the notion of Kashmir’s secession once it became part of India, as the Maharaja had signed the Instrument of Accession, which was later ratified by the Constituent Assembly of Kashmir.
Nehru also prevented the interference of the RSS and Hindu Mahasabha in Jammu and Kashmir. Regarding Article 370, it is important to note that this article was drafted by Sardar Vallabha Bhai Patel and Krishna Swamy Aiyyangar, receiving Nehru’s approval before its inclusion in the Constitution of India. Patel himself communicated with Nehru, indicating that he had successfully persuaded all members and was awaiting Nehru’s endorsement. Critics may argue that Nehru insisted and delegated the task to Patel, but if that were true, why do these critics not acknowledge that Patel effectively integrated numerous princely states into India at Nehru’s request?
Non aligned Movement NAM
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was established with the guidance of Nehru, Tito of Yugoslavia, and Nasser of Egypt to uphold the sovereignty of nations. This initiative allowed India to distance itself from the two global superpowers, namely the United States of America and the Soviet Union. Consequently, India emerged as a significant soft power among third-world countries.