National awakening
In the final decades of the 1800s, India had a national awakening against British hegemony. The values of democracy, citizenship rights, the rule of law, and the sovereignty of a nation-state were ingrained in the young people who traveled to England to study. Many have abandoned their professional activities and joined the fight against the British after returning to India.
In order to understand what has happened beyond the legacies of Gandhi and Nehru, we will examine a few personalities and those who contributed to India’s national awakening in an orderly manner.
Surendranath Banerjea
Surendranath Banerjea (1848-1925) was initially appointed to the ICS but was dismissed from his position on trivial reasons. In 1876, he established the Indian Association with Ananda Mohan Bose. In the interim, Britain has lowered the entry age for ICS from the current 21 to 19 years. On March 24, 1877, he arranged a public gathering opposing this decision at Town Hall, Kolkata. Surendranath Banerjea is regarded as the first individual to travel across India for a purpose between 1876 and 1878. Banerjea visited Lahore, Amritsar, Delhi, Meerut, Aligarh, Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, and Varanasi. Packed gatherings took place everywhere to approve the Civil Services memorandum
The next year, he undertook a comparable journey to Bombay and the Madras Presidency. In May 1884, Banerjea extensively traveled through northern India regarding the unresolved civil services issue. The newly constructed Railway network of 10,000 KMs throughout India enabled Surendranath Banerjea to journey across the entirety of India delivering lectures on the subject. Surendranath Banerjea drew inspiration from Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), the leader of Italian unification. From 1905 to 1911, he played a prominent role in the Bengal anti-partition movement but was against boycotts and violent actions. He championed local self-governance and established Ripon College (currently Surendranath College). He joined the Imperial Legislative Assembly in 1921
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Dadabhai Naoroji
Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917) served as the second President of the Indian National Congress in 1886. He was among the founders of the East India Association in London in 1867 and the Royal Asiatic Society of Bombay. He served as a Professor at Elphinstone. He traveled to London and set up his own business company in 1855. Subsequently, he attained the position of Professor of Gujarati at University College London
Grand Old Man of India
In 1867, he established the East India Association in London to present the Indian perspective to the British audience. In 1874, he was appointed as the Dewan of Baroda. In 1875, he was chosen as a Member of the Municipal Corporation in Bombay. In 1876, he stepped down and departed for London. He launched the newspaper ‘Voice of India’. In 1885, the Bombay Presidency Association was established, and he served as one of the Vice Presidents. He was among the founders of the Indian National Congress in 1885. He held the position of President of INC in 1886, 1893, and 1906. He is celebrated and remembered as the Grand Old Man of India
Dadabhai Naoroji, during his presidency at the INC session, stated at the Lahore gathering in 1893, “Let us always remember that we are all offspring of our motherland.” Certainly, I have always operated under the principle that I am an Indian, with responsibilities to my nation and all my fellow citizens. Regardless of being a Hindu, Mohammedan, Parsi, Christian, or any other faith, my primary identity is that of an Indian. “Our nation is India; our citizenship is Indian.”
In 1902, he was chosen as a Member of the Liberal Party in the House of Commons, representing Central Finsbury; he became the first British Indian Member of Parliament
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) can be considered the trailblazer of the independence movement in India. Mahatma Gandhi praised Tilak as “the Creator of Contemporary India,” while Jawaharlal Nehru referred to him as “the Pioneer of the Indian Revolution.”
Tilak became a member of the Indian National Congress in 1890. He began implementing the Swadeshi movement of 1905–1907 and urged individuals to reject foreign products. Tilak promoted Swarajya (Self-governance) for India rather than political changes. The INC, led by Gopala Krishan Gokhale, rejected his extremist opinions. During the Surat session of the Congress in 1907, the Congress party divided into two groups: Moderates, led by Gopalakrishna Gokhale, and Extremists, including Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak
He also started the passive resistance approach that Gandhi later embraced as the Non-Cooperation movement. Tilak sought to instill a sense of national pride among Marathas by initiating the Ganesh Festival in 1893 and the Shivaji festival in 1895. Despite his respect for Shivaji, he did not promote the idea of reinstating the Maratha governance model for independent India.
Rejected Maratha Model
When asked in Calcutta whether he envisioned a Maratha-model of government for free India, Tilak answered that the Maratha-dominated governments of 17th and 18th centuries were outmoded in the 20th century, and he wanted a genuine federal system for Free India where every principality was an equal partner. He stated that the Maratha model was old-fashioned and a true federal system is beneficial for free India
Kesari and Mahratta
Tilak released two weekly publications: ‘Kesari’ in Marathi and ‘Mahratta’ in English. Tilak faced legal action for his writings and speeches in 1897 and received an 18-month sentence. Tilak was once more sentenced to six years in prison for defending two individuals who had bombed a carriage with the intent to kill an Englishman. That resulted in the deaths of two women instead. Tilak remained in Mandalay prison in Burma for 6 years until 1814. Upon his return, Tilak established the Home Rule League, adopting the motto “Swarajya is my birthright, and I shall possess it.”
In the Mandalay prison, Tilak composed his great work ‘The Gita Rahasya’. Previously, in 1893, he released ‘The Orion’, presenting the theory of the Arctic Home of Aryans. Tilak instructed Mathematics at Fergusson College and additionally at a private school in Poona. It later transformed into the Deccan Education Society
He returned to INC after coming back from Burma. And turned gentle toward the British. He collaborated with moderates and INC led by Tilak, along with the Muslim League under M A Jinnah, to sign the Lucknow Pact in 1916, which permitted separate representation for minorities in Council Elections. The Lucknow Pact was celebrated as a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity; however, it actually established the groundwork for Hindu-Muslim discord, culminating in the country’s partition in 1947. Tilak passed away in 1920
Gopal Krishna Gokhale
In 1912, Gokhale traveled to South Africa to ask Gandhi to come to India and join the fight for freedom. Gandhi returned to India in 1915. Gokhale passed away in 1915.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale, in fact, was against Tilak’s Swaraj. He remarked that it was “insanity to consider independence.” Gokhale supported constitutional activism. Gokhale passed away in 1915.
Gokhale and his associates were labeled as Moderates within the Congress Party, while Tilak and his colleagues, Lala Lajpatrai and Satyapal, were referred to as Extremists.
India House
India House was founded in London in 1905. Shyamaji Krishna Varma was one of the founders. Initially, the India House was meant to offer hostel accommodations for Indian students in London. Nonetheless, it has become a dwelling for revolutionaries. Shyamaji was banished to Paris following the assassination of an Englishman by Madan Lal Dhingra. And V D Sawarkar assumed leadership of the organization in 1907. Nonetheless, the organization was shut down following Sawarkar’s arrest
Gadar Party
The Gadar Party was established in the United States by primarily Punjabi immigrants in 1913. These individuals trafficked weapons into India and urged Indian soldiers to rebel against the British. Nonetheless, the Ghadar Mutiny did not succeed, and following a trial, 42 rebels were executed. From 1914 to 1917, Ghadarites persisted in clandestine actions backed by Germany and Ottoman Turkey, recognized as the Hindu-German Conspiracy. Once World War I ended, the party ceased to exist.
V D Sawarkar
Vinayak Savarkar (1883-1966) and Ganesh Savarkar founded Mitra Mela, a clandestine organization in Nasik in 1899. In 1904, Savarkar changed its name to Abhinav Bharat. Savarkar traveled to London in 1906 to pursue a degree in Law. He was connected to the India House. In 1910, he was apprehended on multiple counts of subversion, war incitement, and other offenses related to a British Magistrate in Nasik. And was sent back to India. During his journey to India as a captive, he attempted to flee and get to France. However, France transferred him to Britain. He was convicted in India, given a life sentence, and sent to the Andaman Jail
He completed his sentence there until 1921 and was returned to India, where he remained under house arrest until 1924. He authored texts on ‘Hindutva’ and ‘First War of Independence’. He became a member of the Hindu Mahasabha in 1937. Originally named the Sarvadeshi Hindu Sabha, it was established by Madan Mohan Malaviya in 1915. Its name was altered to Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha in 1921. In 1937, Hindu Mahasabha collaborated with Muslim parties to establish governments in Sindh, NWFP, and Bengal. Sawarkar supported the establishment of a distinct State for Muslims in 1937.
Bhagat Singh
Bhagat Singh (1907-1931) was among the revolutionaries who resortedtoviolence. Singh considered Kartar Singh Sarabha, anoriginal member of the Ghadar Party, tobe his idol. Bhagat drewinspirationfrom Bhai Parmanand, afellow founding member of the Ghadar Party. Singh was drawn to anarchism and communism.
He was a passionate reader of the writings of Mikhail Bakunin and also explored Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Leon Trotsky. In his final will, “To Young Political Workers”, he states his vision as the “Social reconstruction on a new, specifically Marxist, foundation.”Singh was skeptical of the Gandhian philosophy, which promoted Satyagraha and various methods of non-violent resistance, believing that this approach would merely swap one group of oppressors for another.
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru
In December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru shot at a British man in Lahore, believing he was the individual who commanded the Lathi Charge that critically injured Lala Lajpat Rai. (However, the deceased Englishman was not the individual Bhagat Singh and his companions aimed to assassinate.) Following this event, all three escaped the location. In April 1919, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Datt detonated two low-intensity bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi and handed out pamphlets. Nevertheless, on this occasion, Bhagat Singh and Datt did not flee and welcomed arrest. Jatindra Das and Bhagat Singh undertook a hunger strike while incarcerated, insisting on being recognized as political prisoners. Das sacrificed his life by fasting as part of Satyagraha.
Nehru encountered Bhagat in prison. Gandhi appealed to the Viceroy for areduction in Bhagat Singh’s sentence, but hiseffortswereunsuccessful.
His trial was carriedoutinviolation of all legalstandards. The ruling was delivered in theirabsence, and he was executed with his companions in 1931. He reprimanded his father for composing a mercy petition. He did not pursue an appeal regarding his conviction
Nehru encountered Bhagat while in prison. Gandhi sentaletter to the Viceroy requesting the commutation of Bhagat Singh’s sentence, but itwasunsuccessful.
It is important to mention that during that time, the British hanged and killed thousands of Indians; however, only Bhagat gained fame posthumously, and he remains revered by Indians for his sacrifice. He attained what he desired. He stirred the thoughts of Indians and instilled faith in them to combat the chaos inflicted on India by the British. It is important to mention that Indians, following his execution, did transform but refrained from resorting to violence against the British. However, Indians understood that violent resistance was ineffective against the omnipotent British, so they adopted the Gandhian Principle of Non-violence and expelled the British using only their bare hands.
Dr. Keshav Baliram Hedgewar
Keshav Baliram Hedgewar established the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, RSS. Prior to that, he took part in the freedom movement and spent a year in prison in 1921. Hedgewar stated, “We do not wish to take control of Britain or govern it.” Just as the British in Britain and the Germans in Germany govern themselves, we in this nation of India desire to govern ourselves and manage our own affairs.
Our minds rebel against the idea of being permanent subjects of the British Empire and bearing that legacy eternally. We ask for nothing less than ‘Total Independence’. “Until we reach it, we cannot find peace.” He also took part in Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation movement. However, following 1926, he became more detached from the fight for freedom. He passed away in 1940. Prior to his passing, he designated Golwalkar as the leader of RSS.
Madhav Sadashivrao Golwalkar
He completed his B Sc degree initially in 1927 and then M Sc Biology in 1929. He instructed Zoology at Benares Hindu University for a while, later gaining the reverence of his students as Guruji. Subsequently, he completed his Law degree in 1937. In ‘Bunch of Thoughts’, Golwalkar criticized the Federalism suggested in the Constitution of India and remarked, “We constitute one country, one society, and one nation, sharing a common set of values and secular ambitions; thus, it is logical that the nation’s matters are managed under a singular unitary state.” According to him, the current federal system produces and nurtures separatist sentiments.
Hindu-Muslim unity
Golwalkar referred to “Hindu-Muslim unity” as betrayal, viewing 1947 not as the date India gained independence from British control, but as a fictitious “defeat of Hindus by Muslims.”
Regarding the official language, he stated that Hindi or Sanskrit (never English) should be the sole “official language”: “Until Sanskrit assumes that role, we must prioritize Sanskrit-influenced Hindi as the “official language” due to convenience.”
When it comes to granting privileges to specific communities, he believes that we must put a stop to creating groups based on caste, creed, etc., and seeking exclusive rights and benefits in services, financial support, admissions to educational institutions, and similar areas. Discussions and thoughts around “minorities” and “communities” must completely cease
He labeled Sikhs and Buddhists as communal factions that developedfrom Hindus.
He commended German Anti-Semitism and stated, “German racial pride has now become the focus of discussion.”To maintain the purity of the Race and its culture, Germany astonished the world by cleansing the nation of the Semitic Races—the Jews. Nonetheless, after the British began combatting the Nazi Germans, Golwalkar allied with the British against Hitler.
He urged Shyama Prasad Mukherjee to establish the Bharatiya Janasangh as a political entity for RSS.
Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi’s role in the fight for freedom is recorded on a separate page. Pl click here to access the Article: Mahatma Gandhi 1915-1948
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
The contribution of Jawaharlal Nehru to the freedom struggle is featured on two separate pages. Pl click here to view the Articles: Jawaharlal Nehru 1889-1940 and Jawaharlal Nehru 1940-1950
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